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The complex legacy of Pablo Escobar: the rise and decline, Part 4

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M-19 Teamwork: Escobar’s Tragic Catalyst in Colombian History

When Pablo finally got back to Colombia at the end of 1984, he was set on making his fight with the government worse. He then got in touch with the 19th of April Movement, or M-19. M-19 is a Colombian guerrilla group that formed in the 1970s and is now the second largest paramilitary group in Colombia, after the FARC. With Pablo’s support and encouragement, as well as money and help with logistics, M-19 started getting ready to attack the Colombian government directly in response to the US extradition treaty going into effect. The group saw this as a clear violation of Colombia’s national sovereignty. So, on November 6, 1985, about thirty M-19 guerrilla fighters broke into the Palace of Justice in Bogota, which was the home of the Colombian Supreme Court. They held over 300 people hostage, including most of the judges on the Supreme Court. Following this, calls were made for ending the extradition treaty and for President Betancur to step down and be charged. At the same time, the Colombian army had surrounded the Palace and was getting ready to storm it if they had to. Pablo had started a full-on military conflict in the middle of the capital of Colombia. No matter what, the M-19 fighters’ demands at the Palace of Justice could not be met. But in the morning of November 7, the day after the attack, there seemed to be room for negotiation. Early that morning, the paramilitary fighters inside agreed to free a well-known hostage, a state councillor named Reynaldo Arciniegas. As the hours went by, though, things got worse. Then, just after lunch, at 2 p.m., General Jesús Armando Arias Cabrales, who was in charge of the army divisions outside, gave the order to storm the building. During the next few hours, almost 100 people were killed inside the Palace. This included most of the M-19 fighters and half of the 22 justices of the Colombian Supreme Court. But Pablo got something good out of the situation that he didn’t expect. A lot of paperwork and proof about Colombia’s main drug traffickers was destroyed when the palace was attacked. Originally, it was thought that the M-19 fighters inside had burned these on purpose to help Escobar get away from the police, but it now looks more likely that they were destroyed by fire caused by the explosives used by the army to break into the building. The bloodbath turned out to be surprisingly good for the drug lord. At the same time, Betancur’s government was getting a lot of flak for how it handled the situation, which killed dozens of people including half of Colombia’s top judges.

Political Transformation in Colombia: Escobar’s Clash with Shifting Administrations

 Politics in Colombia started to change after the attack on the Palace of Justice. These changes would have effects on Escobar, his family, the Medellin Cartel, and all drug traffickers in Colombia. Betancur was badly hurt by how he handled the siege, and in August 1986, Virgilio Barco easily beat Betancur to become Colombia’s 27th President. Another difference is that the Barco government was even tougher on Escobar and the cartels than the Betancur government. In January 1987, a few months after taking office, police stopped a group of Escobar’s cars and jeeps on their way from Hacienda Napoles to a safe house in Medellin. This was a sign of things to come. Pablo wasn’t caught because he was travelling without his wife and kids, but Maria and the kids, Juan and Manuela, were arrested and put in a cell for several hours until Pablo’s lawyers came to free them. It showed that the new government was ready to go after Escobar in any way possible, and it showed that the conflict between the drug lord and the Colombian government was getting worse. Before and after the end of the 1980s, Escobar had other enemies besides the Colombian government. In the late 1970s, while Pablo was building up the Medellin Cartel, a separate cartel was forming in Cali, which is in the southwest of Colombia. It was led by the Orejuela brothers, Gilberto and Miguel, as well as José Londono and Hélmer “Pacho” Herrera. It wasn’t long ago that the two drug cartels worked together, often because they both wanted to avoid getting caught by the law in Colombia and launder their money abroad. They also made deals to split up some of the cocaine market in the US. But things got worse in the middle of the 1980s, in part because Rodriguez Gacha, a top member of the Medellin Cartel, tried to force his way into the New York City market, which Medellin had usually given to Cali. By the end of 1987, Medellin and Cali were officially at war, with a lot of killings and bombings. In 1988, one of these people was even able to set off a car bomb outside of Escobar’s house. All of these things added to Escobar’s many problems in the late 1980s, and the war with the Cali Cartel would last the rest of his life, albeit with varying levels of intensity. Even though they were at war with Cali and the government was still trying to arrest or extradite him, the Medellin Cartel was at its richest and most powerful in the mid- to late-1980s. This was because the US market for cocaine was growing all the time. At this point, the Cartel was making about $70 million a day, or $25 billion a year, which is more than $70 billion today when you account for inflation. This was possible because they had a trafficking network that was bringing in about 12 tonnes of cocaine every day. Later, Pablo’s brother Roberto, who was in charge of the Cartel’s finances and logistics, said that the group spent $1,000 a week on rubber bands to separate the money they got into stacks. Because there was so much money to be made, the Cartel may have lost up to 10% of its money before it could be spent. Around 80% of the world’s cocaine trade was controlled by the Cartel at this time. Pablo was thought to be one of the world’s richest billionaires, though estimates of how much money he actually had vary a lot. On top of that, Pablo kept using this money to improve his reputation in Colombia. Escobar was especially aware of how useful it could be to use sports to spread his message. Starting in the early 1980s, he started giving a lot of money to Atletico Nacional, Medellin’s football team. The club went from being in the middle of the pack in the Colombian national league to a title contender in just a few short years. Some of Colombia’s best football players played here in the 1980s, when foreign players were brought in on contracts that paid well. In 1988, the club came in second place in the championship, which meant they could play in the Copa Libertadores, the South American football championship in 1989. Nacional beat Club Olimpia of Paraguay in a penalty shootout to win the Copa and become the first team from Colombia to do so. For Pablo, putting money into the club paid off in more than one way. He got a lot of support in Medellin and throughout Colombia because of it, but it also helped him hide large amounts of cash through betting rings. As the football authorities in Colombia started to crack down on the Cartel’s power in the sport, this business route was eventually shut down as well. The Copa Libertadores did not allow Colombian teams to play for a while in the early 1990s. Even though the Cartel’s wealth and Atletico Nacional’s athletic success were subject to change, Escobar’s drug trafficking operations were having a very bad effect on Medellin. Between the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, Medellin was statistically the most dangerous city in the world to live in, based on the number of violent incidents and murders. For example, there were 7,237 murders in the city in 1991—an average of 18 murders per day, or 266 murders for every 100,000 people in the city. By this time, the population had grown again a lot, to more than 1.5 million. Overall, Colombia had become the most dangerous country in the world because of the government’s fights with the FARC and other guerrilla groups, as well as the wars and other conflicts between the different drug cartels. In 1991, more than 25,000 people were killed in violent ways here. By 1992, that number had risen to over 27,000. It meant that 70 people were killed violently every day, or about one person every twenty minutes. Most standard measurements of this kind say that Colombia was basically a failed state by the late 1980s and early 1990s. Escobar and the Medellin Cartel’s activities played a big role in this happening. Not only was all this violence caused by Escobar’s drug trafficking and Colombia’s larger political problems, but Pablo was also capable of killing a lot of people without any reason. Some of the most well-known events happened in the early winter of 1989. Colombian domestic flight Avianca Flight 203, which went from Bogota to Cali on November 27, exploded five minutes after taking off from the country’s capital. All 107 people on board and three people on the ground were killed. The bombing was planned by Pablo before the 1990 presidential election as an attempt to kill César Gaviria Trujilo, who was running for office and was known to be very tough on drug cartels if elected. Then, two weeks later, a truck bomb went off in front of the Bogota building for the Administrative Department of Security. Escobar’s target this time was General Miguel Alfredo Marquez, who was in charge of the Department. The truck was full of 500,000 pounds of dynamite, and the explosion was so big that it killed 57 people and hurt over 2,000 more in the building and nearby. So, even though Escobar tried to show himself as a kind of Colombian Robin Hood, he was actually in charge of killing a lot of people without any reason in Colombia in the late 1980s. Escobar’s plans to kill César Gaviria Trujilo failed in November 1989 because the candidates for president of Colombia did not get on Avianca Flight 203. It became clear that Trujilo was a candidate after Luis Carlos Galan was killed. Galan had been Escobar’s enemy for a long time, and Escobar chose to run for president against Galan in 1990. It was August 1989 and he was way ahead in the national polls. But on August 18, he was shot and killed in Soacha, which is on the outskirts of Bogota. And there is no doubt that Escobar gave the order to kill him. Galan’s death left a void that Trujilo filled, and there was now no doubt that Pablo had to be prosecuted to the fullest extent possible by the new Colombian government when Trujilo won the election to become president in 1990. However, just a few months later, in 1991, Colombia’s new constitution came out, and it said that the country would not honour the extradition treaty with the US. This created a new problem. Many people at the time and most analysts since then have come to the same conclusion: a lot of people with ties to the cartels, especially Escobar, paid off dozens of members of the National Assembly to make sure that the extradition treaty would not be added to the new constitution. Now that Pablo didn’t have to worry about being sent back to the United States for trial, and things were getting harder for him because he was at war with both the Cali Cartel and the Colombian government, he decided to take a very different action. He started talking with some people in Trujilo’s government about how he could offer to serve a short jail sentence in exchange for ending his fight with the government and becoming mostly free again at the end of the process. Everything about this deal could work out well for everyone. According to Escobar, it would mean a pretty clean slate inside of Colombia. For the Colombian government, it meant that the constant attacks on politicians and judges that Escobar had been in charge of for almost a decade might finally stop. The deal would not be the most honourable, but the country had so many problems in the early 1990s, including a civil war in the countryside, that it might have been the only way to temporarily solve one issue. As a result, Pablo Escobar, who was in charge of the Medellin Cartel, turned himself in to Colombian police in 1991. There was one catch. He asked to be given permission to build his own jail. The Cathedral, or La Catedral, wasn’t what most people think of when they think of a prison. In many places, prisons are meant to keep prisoners away from their old lives. In this case, Escobar was able to negotiate the terms of his surrender so that he could build his own prison. Because of this, the Cathedral was built on top of a hill with a view of Medellin so that Pablo’s friends and family could easily visit him. The Colombian drug lord didn’t have to do much to get set up. For example, the prison had a football pitch, a Jacuzzi and even its own bar with a waterfall. Escobar did everything he could to see what was going on in the city below. He even set up his own private phone line and a telescope. In a way, Escobar was under a kind of voluntary house arrest in this mansion that was built just for him. Because of this, the “prison” was sometimes called “Hotel Escobar,” which shows how easy Pablo’s prison sentence really was. In addition, it was built with defence in mind. The Cathedral wasn’t really a prison because it was built on top of a hill that was often foggy. Instead, it was more of a fortress to keep people from outside trying to get to Escobar. Pablo was given a sentence that said he could spend no more than five years in prison at La Catedral. In exchange, the Colombian government agreed not to try to extradite him to the US. The government would be able to save face by saying that Escobar had finally been punished in some way, while Escobar would be able to keep watching over his drug trafficking activities from the hill that looks out over Medellin. The trick did not work for very long, though. By early 1992, there were stories in the Colombian media saying that Pablo was still running the Medellin Cartel from La Catedral. The stories also talked about how nice it was for him to live there. Under a lot of pressure, the Colombian government chose in July 1992 to try to move Escobar to a more normal Colombian jail. But Pablo at the hilltop prison easily learned about this ahead of time, and Escobar was able to leave La Catedral without any problems because he didn’t have to follow many rules. Escobar was able to easily get out of prison by using an escape route he set up when his own prison was being built. A fake wall he had built over an escape tunnel was taken down. The last exciting event in Pablo’s life began with his flight from La Catedral. He got away from going to a prison with harsher rules, but now Trujilo’s government was strongly against him. They were ready to call on the US and let US secret services work freely in Colombia to try to catch, detain, or kill Escobar. Around the beginning of the 1990s, SEAL Team Six, a part of the US Joint Special Operations Command, was working in Colombia to capture Escobar and, if possible, bring him back to the US, where he would be sentenced to life in a maximum security prison. These groups were joined and helped by Search Bloc, a special operations unit of the National Police of Colombia that was set up by the Barco administration in 1986 and got more resources in the early 1990s as the search for Escobar grew. Along with these, Escobar’s other enemies, like the Cali Cartel and a vigilante group called Los Pepes, joined the fight. Los Pepes was supposed to represent people who had lost loved ones because of Escobar’s violence and bombings since the 1980s. After Escobar ran away from La Catedral, US and Colombian special forces worked together with Los Pepes. As soon as Escobar got out of jail in July 1992, the manhunt began. As soon as Pablo got to a safe house, he made things worse by giving an interview to a local radio station. He was making fun of the government and his opponents by explaining in detail how he had gotten away, but there was also a bit of caution in this. During the interview, Escobar made it clear that he was ready to go back to jail as long as certain conditions were met. These conditions included letting him serve the rest of his agreed-upon sentence at La Catedral. But the government had enough.

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The complex legacy of Pablo Escobar: the rise and decline, Part 3

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How did Escobar grow to the position of drug ruler?

Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, Pablo’s business continued to grow without any problems. He was pretty unknown at this point, compared to when he became famous as the King of Cocaine or El Patron, also known as “the Boss.” He was in charge of the Medellin Cartel, which continued to grow quickly and bring more and more cocaine into the United States. They also smuggled large amounts into other countries, like Spain, which was like Florida for the American drug market: it let drugs into the country. The complicated ways the drugs were moved got even more complicated. For example, boats pulled small submarines full of powder. Soon, Escobar’s network was bringing several tonnes of cocaine into the United States and Europe illegally every week. This made the gang as much as $60 million a day, or $20 billion a year. By the early 1980s, the Cartel was buying coca paste from plantations in neighbouring countries like Peru and Bolivia. This meant that their operations had grown beyond Colombia. South America now has a whole industry based on the operation. It was getting so much money for the Cartel that it couldn’t spend it, and even laundering and hiding it was becoming very hard to do. A lot of it was cleaned through Panama. One common way was to buy gold and then melt it down into forms that other countries could use as clean money. Even so, these methods had their flaws. So, instead of spending the money, huge amounts of it were hidden in homes all over the country, where no one would ever guess they were there. Even stranger, the Cartel bought a mansion with a Jacuzzi that could be rolled up and down. Some tens of millions of dollars were hidden in a secret compartment under this. The house was then given to a poor Colombian family without telling them about the compartment. The only catch was that the family had to leave the house every so often when money was added to or taken out of the compartment. Some of this money is still being found today, which is not a surprise. In 2020, Pablo’s nephew Nicolás Escobar found $18 million hidden in the wall of one of Pablo’s old homes. It’s not the first time that huge amounts of money have been found by accident in some of Escobar and the Cartel’s old homes. The risk of getting caught kept going up as the profits kept going up. Extradition was one of the things Escobar and other members of the Cartel feared the most.

Escobar’s Reign of Terror: Battling Extradition and Terrorist Tactics

In September 1979, the government of Colombia and the government of US President Jimmy Carter signed an extradition treaty. This meant that drug smugglers from Colombia who brought large amounts of cocaine into the US could be sent to the US to be tried for their crimes there. When this treaty went into effect in March 1982, it put Escobar in great danger. If he were caught and sentenced in Colombia, the level of corruption in the country would either keep him from being found guilty or give him a very light sentence in prison. But if he were sent back to the US and found guilty there, he would almost certainly spend the rest of his life in a maximum security prison. In response to this threat, Escobar and some of his friends started a terrorist campaign in the early to mid-1980s that included kidnapping, killing, and bombing people in Colombian politics, law enforcement, and the courts to try to get them to back out of the extradition treaty. It didn’t work, though, and drug traffickers like Escobar lived in constant fear of being extradited in Colombia throughout the 1980s.

The Misleading Picture of a Colombian Hero

To avoid the risk of being extradited, Pablo tried to get support from people all over Colombia. A big part of Escobar’s mystery came from the idea that he was a Colombian Robin Hood. In the beginning, many people thought that Pablo and the Cartel’s actions didn’t really hurt regular Colombians. Any harm that their actions caused happened a long way away in the United States, which many Colombians saw as an imperial power that was attacking Latin America. To make his reputation even worse, Pablo gave away a lot of the huge amounts of money that were coming into the Cartel’s accounts every week. In some cases, he gave this to the people of Medellin as free cash. He also spent a lot of money on building projects in Medellin and across the country. He built football stadiums, parks and other public facilities. At one point, he even let people into the zoo at Hacienda Napoles for free. Improving the roads around Medellin was one of the most important investments. The city had grown very quickly in the 20th century and was now plagued by traffic jams. Pablo’s money helped fix some of these problems. Finally, Escobar would dress up as Santa Claus at Christmas and give expensive gifts to kids in poor areas. In this way, he bought the love of many people in Medellin and throughout Colombia. Even though people tried to make Pablo seem less bad, by the early 1980s he was known as the leader of the notorious Medellin Cartel and had a target on his back. So he came up with a new way to answer. He tried to get even more attention.

A Cascading Story of Political Ascendancy: Escobar, Bloodshed, and the Colombian Congress

 He decided to run for office in Colombian politics in 1982 and was chosen by the Colombian Liberal Party. Pablo focused his campaigning on the extradition treaty between Colombia and the US, which was just going into effect. He said that the Colombian president, Julio Cesar Turbay, was giving up some of Colombia’s sovereignty by letting the US extradite Colombian citizens to its own country to be tried there. But Pablo also had people who didn’t like him during the campaign, and some of them were killed with bullets. During a debate in Medellin, a strong opponent said that Escobar was getting involved in politics for his own gain. Soon after, the man was arrested by elements of the Medellin police force that worked for the Cartel. After that, he was given to Escobar’s goons. A few days later, he was found dead on the streets of Medellin, his body full of bullet holes. So, Escobar was able to get elected to the Colombian Chamber of Representatives in March 1982 by using threats and his support for the people.

Escobar’s Political Strategy: Revealing the Conflict with Colombia’s Established Authorities

Pablo’s decision to get involved in Colombian politics was a controversial move. It helped hide his illegal activities and gave him a chance to question the extradition treaty from within parliament, but it also brought him a lot of attention that he didn’t need. What’s more, it made the conservative political establishment in Colombia start working to get rid of him. He used to be one of many drug dealers in the country, though he was the most successful. Now he was trying to bring down the country’s political establishment on purpose. It was especially important for Colombia’s new Conservative president, Belisario Betancur, to get rid of Escobar from politics. In order to do that, Betancur started a campaign against Pablo in the summer of 1983. One thing he did was make Rodrigo Lara Bonilla the minister of justice so that he could do a lot more to go after drug traffickers in Colombia, especially Pablo. At the same time, there was a media campaign against Escobar, and the newspaper El Espectador published a long article analysing Pablo’s arrest in 1976. This gave a lot of information about what had happened, how Escobar tried to hide the fact that he was arrested, and how he tried to avoid going to jail. Pablo was now being watched by the media in a way that he didn’t want because he was the face of illegal drug trafficking in Colombia. His first reaction to all the unwanted attention was the same as always. He thought about killing the editor of El Espectador and told people in the Cartel to try to buy as many copies of the newspaper as they could to cut down on its circulation. But within days, more stories came out that went beyond what was in El Espectador and showed how big the problem really was.  But this would soon get bigger. In 1978, Carlos Lehder started buying land on Norman’s Cay, a Bahamian island, with the goal of turning it into a hub for cocaine trafficking between Colombia and the United States. Over the next few months, he used violence to scare local landowners into selling their land, even killing some of the residents. Lehder, who was unstable and paranoid, also pushed Jung out of the operation at this point. So, in just a few months, he had pretty much converted the island.

The Romantic Involvement with Virginia Vallejo

Some of these focused on his personal life and told how Pablo had started seeing a famous Colombian TV host named Virginia Vallejo. In recent months, Vallejo was the first reporter to have a one-on-one interview with Escobar. From that point on, their relationship grew. The trafficker had problems at home and in public because his wife Maria temporarily kicked him out of the family home and threatened to divorce him. This was fixed after a lot of pleading, but Pablo’s affair with Vallejo went on and off for another few years and didn’t end until 1987.

Escobar’s Resignation, Political Assassination, and the Increasing Conflict with the Colombian Government

Pablo was getting too much attention, so in late 1983, Gustavo Zuluaga, the superior judge of Medellin, decided to look into Pablo’s arrest in 1976 all over again. At the same time, Escobar’s American visa was revoked by the US embassy in Bogota, and Pablo’s special immunity as a member of the parliament was voted down by the Colombian Congress. Because of this, he decided to leave politics behind, knowing that his plan to get more protection from prosecution by getting involved in politics had backfired. And on January 20, 1984, he sent a letter giving up his seat in the Colombian Chamber of Representatives. In it, he said, “I will continue to fight against oligarchies and injustices, as well as against backroom dealings that show no regard for the people’s needs and especially against demagogues and dirty politicians who don’t care about the people’s suffering but are always on the lookout for ways to split up official power.” Three months after Pablo quit the Colombian parliament, on 30 April 1984, a Yamaha motorbike pulled up next to Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, who was in his car stuck in traffic in Bogota. Lara Bonilla was the justice minister and his job was to bring Escobar and Colombia’s other major drug traffickers to justice. Two men were on it. One was driving, but Ivan Dario Guisado, who was sitting in the back seat, quickly pulled out an Uzi submachine gun and started shooting at Bonilla’s car. The justice minister was shot several times and died right away. Soon after, Guisado was killed when Bonilla’s bodyguards returned fire. The driver, Byron Velasquez, had done what Escobar told him to do, which was like Pablo declaring war on the Colombian government. It was seen that way by the authorities, who then moved to fully carry out the treaty with the US on extradition. While this was going on, Pablo temporarily left Colombia with his family and lived in Panama, which is to the north. They then spent a short time in Nicaragua, which was in the middle of a full-blown civil war.

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The complex legacy of Pablo Escobar: the rise and decline, part 2

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The beginnings of Escobar’s drug dealing career

At the end of the 1960s, Pablo Escobar was coming into this world. This man, who later said he was just “a decent man who exports flowers,” was already involved in Medellin’s organised crime scene, though only on a small level, when he was in his late teens. Together with Oscar Benel Aguirre, he was selling illegal cigarettes and committing “grand theft auto.” They and their friends also kidnapped a number of famous people and demanded large amounts of money as ransoms. And Escobar had even bigger plans. He wanted to get rich quickly, and he was ready to do anything to get it. As early as the 1970s, this included sneaking marijuana into the country. Later, the goods they brought in were changed to cocaine. Because of this, a lot of people saw him as a man marked. Around this time, Pablo started dating Maria Victoria Henao, who was a teenager. Her mother is said to have told her to forget about him unless she wanted to spend a lot of time going to see him in prison. Maria didn’t give up, and in the end, they got married in 1976, when he was 26 and she was 15. Juan and Manuela would be their two children. In the middle of the 1970s, not long before he married Maria, Pablo got involved in the growing cocaine trade. Another smuggler named Griselda Blanco brought him into the business. Within the United States in the 1960s, cocaine was more of a niche drug. Other drugs like marijuana, LSD, and heroin were much more common. But in the 1970s, cocaine use exploded all over the country. This was especially true in cities like New York and Miami as the disco scene grew. Because of this, the market for cocaine in Latin America, especially in Colombia, grew very quickly. At that time, this is what made it possible for drug cartels and small operators like Pablo to get into the business in Colombia in the mid-1970s. Pablo’s first job was with some well-known drug smugglers in Medellin. They hired him to bring packages of coca paste to processing plants in and around Medellin so that it could be turned into powdered cocaine. Soon enough, Pablo cut out some of the middlemen and started his own businesses to fly large amounts of fully processed cocaine out of Colombia and into the US via different routes. At the time, they had no idea that Pablo and his friends were setting up the first steps of what would become the Medellin Cartel. It was almost over for the Medellin Cartel before it even began. As Pablo and some others were on their way to Medellin in May 1976 with 18 kilogrammes of coca paste, they were caught. Pablo’s first thought was to try to pay off the people who had arrested him and then the judges in Medellin. This didn’t work, so Pablo tried to kill the police officers who arrested him so they wouldn’t have to testify against him in court. It looks like the risks of continuing to try to catch Escobar were too high for the authorities, and they decided to drop the case. He got away with it, but the way he got the charges dropped was typical of how Pablo behaved for the next fifteen years or so. If it helped him get ahead of his rivals or kept the police from catching him, Escobar was always ready to strike. And it’s important to keep this in mind when you think about Pablo Escobar. In the years that followed, he would constantly try to show himself as a humble drug dealer who thought drugs would be legalised one day. But behind these lies was someone who had ordered thousands of deaths over the years.

The Medellin Cartel

 In the late 1970s, Escobar and the Medellin Cartel’s business took off. This wasn’t just because the market for cocaine in the US grew, but also because the Cartel came up with a number of very good ways to bring the drug into the US. Carlos Lehder, a German-Colombian, and George Jung, an American from Massachusetts, did some drug smuggling after getting out of prison in Connecticut in 1976. Soon after, they started working for Escobar. Lehder was sent to Danbury Prison in Connecticut for smuggling drugs and selling stolen cars. Jung, on the other hand, was running a scheme to bring marijuana from Mexico to California and then ship it across the country to New England, where it sold for a huge amount more than it cost to buy in Mexico. In Danbury, on the other hand, they came up with a way to get into the growing cocaine trade. As a result, when they got out of jail, they started bringing cocaine from Colombia into the United States through the Caribbean and Florida, especially the city of Miami. The first reason Escobar hired them was to help his business grow by bringing bigger and bigger loads of cocaine into the United States.  But this would soon get bigger. In 1978, Carlos Lehder started buying land on Norman’s Cay, a Bahamian island, with the goal of turning it into a hub for cocaine trafficking between Colombia and the United States. Over the next few months, he used violence to scare local landowners into selling their land, even killing some of the residents. Lehder, who was unstable and paranoid, also pushed Jung out of the operation at this point.

The history of Norman’s Cay airports and how they came to be associated with cocaine

In just a few months, he turned the island into his own personal fiefdom. He then spent millions of dollars building a runway and warehouses. Norman’s Cay was the Medellin Cartel’s private airport in the Caribbean for a few years. It was located off the coast of the United States, close to the biggest cocaine market in the world. Large planes would bring huge amounts of Escobar’s cocaine to the island, where it would be unloaded and reloaded onto smaller planes that could fly into the US without being caught. Over 300 kilogrammes of cocaine were coming to Norman’s Cay every day at its busiest. This made Escobar, Lehder, and their friends billionaires. Lehder got so rich that he twice offered to pay off the Colombian government’s debt to avoid being charged with crimes.

Barry Seal’s Curious Partnership with the Medellin Narcotics Group

Barry Seal was another well-known associate at this time. Seal was a plane pilot from Baton Rouge, which is in the southern U.S. state of Louisiana. Like Jung, he started out in drug trafficking in the mid-1970s by bringing in marijuana from Mexico. But like Jung and Lehder, he quickly realised that bringing in cocaine, which was more valuable and easier to transport, would make him much more money. By 1981, he had set up a system for running his business and had made connections with Escobar and the Medellin Cartel. Seal used more than a dozen small planes that could fly low and stay out of American airspace without being picked up by radar. These planes would fly over the Gulf of Mexico and into Louisiana airspace. They would then drop the packages off at agreed upon locations in the country. The packages were then picked up by a team on the ground by Seal. They were then sent to Florida and delivered to the Medellin Cartel’s East Coast distribution network. Seal did work for Escobar, but it had two sides. In 1983, the US Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) charged him with a crime. By early 1984, he was working as a US government informant and giving them a lot of information about Escobar and his business. Escobar finally found out about this and had Seal killed in February 1986. As a branch of the Medellin Cartel, Norman’s Cay was becoming Lehder’s private fiefdom, and Seal was dropping packages over Louisiana.

Escobar’s Hidden Empire

 At the same time, Escobar was setting up his own private kingdom in Colombia. Pablo bought 20 square kilometres of land around Puerto Triunfo, which is about 150 kilometres east of Medellin, with some of the money he made from his business. He built the huge Hacienda Napoles, or Naples Estate, here for himself and his family. The property had a Spanish colonial house, a sculpture park, and even a zoo with zebras, hippos, antelopes, elephants, giraffes, ostriches, and ponies that Escobar had brought into Colombia. Hippos were very important to Escobar, so many of them were brought into the Hacienda. Because of this decision, there are now wild hippos living in this part of Colombia. Pablo Escobar also gathered a large collection of old and expensive cars, motorcycles, and even built a kart track and a bullring. There was also an airport at the Hacienda, but it was only for visitors and wasn’t used by the Medellin Cartel for business. Escobar even planned to build an acropolis or citadel in the style of ancient Greece here, but this plan never came to fruition. This wasn’t the only big property Pablo bought either. Incredibly, even though Escobar was one of the biggest drug dealers in the US, he was able to buy a huge pink mansion on Miami Beach in Florida in the late 1970s. The house was registered in his own name because Escobar wasn’t yet a well-known drug lord, but the US government would seize the property in later years. Escobar also bought a huge estate on the island of Isla Grande, also known as the “Great Island,” in the Caribbean. The Islas del Rosario is a large group of islands located just over twenty miles off the north coast of Colombia. This is the largest island in the group. Like with the Hacienda Napoles, Escobar built a large estate here, complete with a mansion, extra apartments, animals that he brought in from other countries, swimming pools, and a landing pad for helicopters to make getting in and out easy. Additionally, these were only the fanciest homes that Escobar bought with money he got from the illegal drug trade in Colombia. The Medellin Cartel also owned hundreds of homes across the country, and they often only used them to hide their money in very fancy ways.

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The complex legacy of Pablo Escobar: the rise and decline, part 1

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Family background and early life

Pablo Escobar was born on December 1, 1949, as Pablo Emilio Escobar Gaviria in the city of Rionegro in the department of Antioquia in Colombia. He is known to history as Pablo Escobar. Abel de Jesus Dari Escobar Echeverri was his father. He was a poor farmer who often worked as a farmhand on other people’s plots to make money for his large family of seven children. Pablo was the third child in the family. Hermilda de Los Dolores Gaviria Berrio was Pablo’s mother. She raised their seven children and also worked as an elementary school teacher in the area.

Migration to Medellin

Even though Pablo was born in Rionegro, his family moved to Medellin when he was still very young. It is interesting to think about how this Colombian city, which Pablo would become so closely linked to, has grown over time. In the 1610s, the Spanish came to the area and started to build a village with people of different races. Over the next two hundred years, it steadily grew to the point where, when the Republic of Gran Colombia, which is now Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama, declared its independence from Spain in 1819, Medellin was already the capital of the region. It was in the northwest of Colombia, in the Aburrá Valley, next to the Andes Mountains. Latin America grew economically and population-wise in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and Medellin grew along with it. Medellin’s growth as an industrial hub caused the population to rise from about 60,000 in 1905 to over 300,000 by the time Pablo was born. It kept growing after that. When Pablo was in his early twenties, there were already more than a million people living in the city. Medellin was now the industrial capital of the country and the second largest city. He got involved in the many criminal businesses that had sprung up all over Medellin because of the city’s extreme poverty.

Involvement in gang and kicking out from school

By the time he was 14, he was in a gang and was quickly kicked out of school. He also got into a few fights with other gang members. One of these got him into a fight with Julio Tulio Garces, which he lost, but Pablo wasn’t scared. Pablo got into a fight with Julio Gaviria again, and this time he pulled out a gun and shot Gaviria in the foot. The police were called, and Pablo spent his first few nights in a Colombian prison. And while they were teenagers, he and some of his friends were involved in a number of minor crimes. In some versions of the story, they steal gravestones, sand down the fronts where the names are written, and then sell them as new. Some people think Pablo was running a business to sell fake college and high school diplomas. In these stories about his early life, it’s hard to tell the difference between what is true and what is made up.

Colombia politics

The history of Colombia in the 20th century and the growth of the drug trade there must be seen in light of Pablo Escobar’s troubled life after that. In some ways, it’s impossible to separate drugs and politics in modern Colombia. There are two main political parties in the country: Liberals and Conservatives. The United States of America has always watched and meddled in the country’s politics. In the beginning, this interventionism, which was spread throughout Latin America because of the Monroe Doctrine, which saw the Americas as a zone of US influence, was focused on allowing US access to the Isthmus of Panama. However, after Panama separated from Colombia in the early 1900s, this became less of an issue. During these decades, conservative politicians often sided with American businesses that wanted to control the trade of goods like bananas, coffee, and other things in Central and South America. The country ended up with an economy that was far behind and a lot of poor people. But not long before Pablo was born, the country was ruled by populists because the Liberal party wanted to fix the country’s economic problems and make Colombia’s wealth more evenly distributed. The political instability in Colombia today can be traced back to 1948, the year Pablo was born. That’s when the populist politician Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was killed, which caused a big rift between Colombia’s Liberals and Conservatives. After that, there was a civil war for ten years called “La Violencia,” or “The Violence,” in which more than 200,000 people were killed across the country. Eventually, the two groups agreed to work together in an uneasy way to form a National Front where each party would take turns holding power.

Gorella war between the Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC).

This new government, with the help and encouragement of the US, started cracking down on the more left-leaning parts of Colombia’s politics, especially Leninist-Marxist Communist groups. This was done to keep Colombia from becoming an ally of Russia in the Americas, like Cuba recently did. As a result, a guerrilla war started in 1964 between the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Colombian government. It has continued in some form or another to this day. Other paramilitary groups operating in rural areas of Colombia have also been involved in the so-called “Colombian Conflict.” Not long after, the FARC and other groups were in charge of a lot of rural Colombia. In the 1960s and early 1970s, all of this happened at the same time that the demand for illegal drugs was rising around the world, especially in the US and Europe. At first, marijuana was the drug of choice, but as time went on, cocaine, the powder made from the leaves of the coca plant, became the drug of choice because it was easier to transport and make more money from. Colombia has the perfect conditions for growing coca plants. The country’s vast rural jungles and rising crime rates in the 1960s made it the world’s centre for cocaine production very quickly. Even though groups like the FARC weren’t directly involved in growing and exporting cocaine at first, they did allow these activities to happen in the areas of Colombia they controlled, and they also taxed the people who made the drugs. This gave them money that they needed to keep fighting the government in a civil war by buying weapons and other supplies. A long time later, the FARC and other groups would even start making their own. Because of this, the political situation in Colombia in the second half of the 20th century cannot be separated from the production of cocaine during Pablo’s rise to power and at his peak.

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Q-star, the Ai which threatens humanity

by with No Comment BlogTech

It has been a year since ChatGPT made its debut to the general public, a momentous occasion that had a significant impact on how people around the world viewed artificial intelligence. Many people are in awe of the astounding capabilities of an artificial intelligence programme such as ChatGPT. Sam Altman, the CEO of OpenAI, has become a symbol of the ongoing revolution in artificial intelligence. OpenAI is the company that is leading the charge in creating this. Recent happenings within the company, on the other hand, have taken an unexpected turning point. An uproar was caused among the staff members as a result of the unexpected dismissal of the Board of Directors, which included Sam Altman. Over the course of just four days, OpenAI went through three different CEO personnel changes. On the other hand, the most intriguing discovery was the appearance of a mysterious force that was responsible for this upheaval. This force was Q-Star, an artificial intelligence entity that was shrouded in mystery.

A number of researchers working for OpenAI wrote a letter to the board of directors prior to Sam Altman’s dismissal. In the letter, they expressed concern regarding the development of a highly powerful artificial intelligence that could pose a risk to humankind. This artificial intelligence, which was given the name Q-Star, demonstrated remarkable capabilities and was able to solve difficult problems and predict future events to a certain extent. The internal designation for this artificial intelligence was changed to Q-Star, which raised concerns about the implications of this change.

One of the most prominent antagonists in Tom Cruise’s most recent Mission Impossible film, “Dead Reckoning Part 1,” was not a human but rather an artificial intelligence that was given the name Entity. Because of its omnipotence, this artificial intelligence was able to manipulate people and predict the future through the use of mass surveillance.

  • Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) vs Weak Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Foreseeing events ten or fifteen years in the future is not part of the predictive capability of artificial intelligence. On the other hand, it is particularly effective at making short-term forecasts, such as predicting the outcomes of specific situations for the following day or week. The term “Artificial General Intelligence” (AGI) refers to a type of artificial intelligence that is capable of performing a variety of tasks more effectively than humans. Existing artificial intelligence models, such as ChatGPT and MidJourney, are classified as Weak AI. These models excel in particular tasks, but they do not possess the versatility of artificial general intelligence (AGI).

In the beginning, OpenAI was a non-profit organisation with the goal of developing artificial general intelligence for the benefit of humanity. All ten of the company’s co-founders, including Altman and Musk, as well as other influential individuals such as Ilya Sutskever and Greg Brockman, have committed a total of one billion dollars. In 2019, however, Altman took over as CEO of the company, which resulted in a change in the company’s overall direction. Moving forward in time to November 17, 2023, the board of directors abruptly terminated Altman’s employment.

OpenAI Global LLC, the company’s corporate subsidiary that operates for profit, was the source of the company’s turmoil. It had been planned from the beginning to limit profits to one hundred times the initial investment, but Microsoft ended up investing a staggering one billion dollars in the company. Over the course of four years, it amassed thirteen billion dollars in investments, with Microsoft holding a forty-nine percent stake. Concerns regarding the scope of commercialization and its potential effects were brought up as a result of the delicate balance that exists between activities that are for profit and those that are not for profit.

Concerns were raised among OpenAI’s ranks as a result of the appearance of Q-Star, an artificial general intelligence that was kept under wraps. Its capabilities, which were only known to those who were on the inside, revolved around reinforcement learning, which is a technique in which artificial intelligence learns from human feedback in order to improve decision-making.

Questions were raised regarding the capability of Q-Star to forecast and influence a variety of aspects of human life, ranging from elections to business dealings. These questions sparked debate. The possibility that artificial general intelligence (AGI) could operate solely on mathematical algorithms and be immune to human biases has increased concerns regarding the future course of OpenAI.

  • Disputes and Discord Caused by OpenAI

The for-profit push came into conflict with conservative approaches that placed an emphasis on the safety of artificial intelligence, led by Ilya Sutskever. The fact that this discord has become more intense after the release of ChatGPT+, the launch of the API, and the unveiling of GPT-4 is indicative of a shift towards excessive commercialization. While Altman was concentrating on future launches and finding ways to increase profits, Ilya was putting safety protocols first.

The company was confronted with a critical juncture following Altman’s dismissal and subsequent reinstatement. OpenAI’s dependence on its workforce was highlighted by Sam’s return to his position as CEO, which was supported by more than ninety percent of employees threatening to resign. An important turning point was when Ilya, despite his concerns about his own safety, found himself in agreement with the necessity of the company’s continued existence.

In the aftermath of the conflict, two board members were removed from their positions, and new board members were appointed. Because of Microsoft’s ownership stake in OpenAI, the situation became more complicated, which ultimately resulted in Sam being reinstated as CEO. This change in power represented an important step towards OpenAI’s stability and governance when it occurred.

  • OpenAI’s Future: Moving Forward in the Future

Microsoft’s vested interest in artificial intelligence is reflected in Satya Nadella’s position on the board of directors of OpenAI. There is still a lack of clarity regarding OpenAI’s future course of action, which may be profit-driven or aligned with its non-profit mission. Arguments and conjectures regarding the impact on the development of artificial general intelligence (AGI) and its implications for the future of humanity are ongoing.

Recognising the potential of artificial intelligence in order to successfully navigate a world that is constantly evolving is necessary. It is essential to continue to comprehend the implications of the AI landscape as it continues to develop.

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Why British Left India? | Reality of Mahatma Gandhi’s Role 

by with No Comment history

For the Quit India Movement, which began on August 8, 1942 at the Gwalior Tank Maidan in Mumbai, the departure of the British from India is a momentous chapter in history. This movement is shrouded in mystery. When the All India Congress Committee got together to announce an audacious final struggle against the colonial rule, it was a momentous occasion that forever changed the course of history.

For the purpose of rallying the masses to embrace the mantra of “Do or Die,” Mahatma Gandhi delivered a speech that became legendary in front of a sea of onlookers. This speech signalled an unwavering determination for freedom from the oppressive British regime. It was on that momentous day that the discontent that had been building up for years against the imperialist dominion finally reached a boiling point, which was the beginning of the current movement.

On the other hand, the British authorities were not taken aback by the situation. Several months earlier, their Home Department had painstakingly developed a three-step strategy to put down any potential uprising. The strategy began with the control of propaganda, then moved on to the seizure of Congress offices, and finally culminated in the suppression of the growing movement.

The Arrests and Ongoing Struggle

The leaders of the Congress party, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, were swiftly arrested the following day, which severely hampered the movement’s ability to have a visible leadership. However, this disruption did not discourage the movement; rather, it served as a catalyst for the development of an uplifting story of perseverance and determination.

Failed Negotiations and British Offers

This movement was the culmination of a series of unsuccessful negotiations and offers presented by the British. The struggle for independence had a long history, and this movement was the culmination of that struggle. During World War II, numerous attempts were made by the British government to secure the cooperation of the Indian people. These efforts included the August Offer in 1940 and the Cripps Mission in 1942. On the other hand, the Indian leaders, led by Congress, steadfastly demanded complete independence and rejected these offers.

Brave Hearts Amidst Oppression

The fervour of the Quit India Movement was fueled by the participation of a wide variety of people. Among them, Usha Mehta, who was only 22 years old at the time, was particularly noteworthy because she was the one who secretly operated Congress Radio 42.34. She became a beacon of information dissemination during the time when the British authorities were stifling mainstream media. Her courageous efforts were heard all over the country, and she narrowly escaped capture until she was finally apprehended.

The Call for Support and Ordinary Heroes

At the same time, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who was living in exile in Berlin at the time, supported Gandhi’s movement through his Azad Hind Radio, thereby demonstrating a unified front for the liberation of India. In the midst of the chaos, ordinary citizens such as Matangini Hazra displayed extraordinary bravery by leading rallies despite the fact that they could have fatal consequences. This exemplifies the unyielding spirit of the widespread population.

Several Different Types of Opposition

There was widespread participation in the movement, which encompassed a variety of forms of civil disobedience. These included strikes in factories, disruptions in government operations, and even instances of violence in certain regions. Despite this, Mahatma Gandhi, who was worn down by the violent turn of events, expressed a pragmatic stance during which he blamed the chaos on the oppressive policies of the British.

Arguments in Opposition and Collaborative Efforts

There were, however, voices within India that disagreed with the fervour for independence that was prevalent at the time. In opposition to the Quit India Movement, the Muslim League, which was led by prominent figures such as Fazlul Huq, and the Hindu Mahasabha, which included prominent figures such as Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, were seen to be aligning themselves with the British. When compared to the overwhelming demand for freedom, this collaboration with the colonial power by certain Indian factions stood in stark contrast to the current situation.

Attention from around the world and shifts in political power

Despite this, the Quit India Movement was successful in accomplishing its goal, which was to bring attention from around the world to India’s fight for independence. Global leaders, such as President Roosevelt, exerted pressure on the government of the United Kingdom to address India’s aspirations, which caused the winds of change to blow internationally. It was a watershed moment in British history when, in 1945, the Labour Party, led by Clement Attlee, rose to power and became the dominant political party. The possibility of India achieving its goal of self-governance was on the horizon.

The Legacy That Will Last Forever

As a result of this change in power, the Congress leaders who had been imprisoned were released, which paved the way for India’s eventual achievement of independence. Despite the fact that it involved sacrifices and struggles, the movement was a significant step in India’s march towards freedom.

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Chicken or egg: What came first? 

by with No Comment Science

We continue to be fascinated by a riddle that has been around for centuries: which came first, the chicken or the egg? This fascinating conundrum reveals previously hidden layers of evolutionary history. It begs the question: from which egg did the first chicken emerge? If we are to assert that the chicken came first, then this raises the question. If, on the other hand, we propose that the egg comes before the chicken, then this raises the question of which chicken laid the egg in the first place. The contentious classification of eggs as either vegetarian or non-vegetarian is another interesting topic that is discussed in this mysterious debate. Let’s get started on a comprehensive investigation to figure out how to make sense of these enigmas.

The origin

The events of the story take place approximately 150 million years ago, when dinosaurs established their dominance over the planet. In the midst of this prehistoric period, which was characterised by a wide variety of dinosaur species, the journey of evolution of birds began. It was during this period of time that the first birds of the avian species took to the air. As opposed to following a linear path, evolution has diverged in a number of different directions. There were dinosaurs that shrunk and evolved into avian creatures, beginning the lineage of modern-day birds such as chickens. While some dinosaurs evolved into formidable predators such as the T-Rex, others shrunk and evolved into avian creatures. Particularly noteworthy is the evolutionary connection that exists between modern chickens and their formidable ancestors, such as the T-Rex. This connection exemplifies the various paths that evolution can take.

Egg Origins: A Prehistoric Timeline

Despite the fact that birds did not come into existence until much later, dinosaurs were already capable of laying eggs. Dinosaurs laid eggs that were comparable to those that are being laid by modern birds such as chickens and ostriches. This occurred even before the evolution of birds. Eggs are thought to have originated approximately 375 million years ago, when they were laid by an amphibious creature known as Tiktaalik Roseae for the first time. These ancient eggs, which were not like the chicken eggs that are used today, could be compared to fish eggs because they did not have a hard shell around them.

In the vicinity of 300 million years ago, eggs underwent a transformation that resulted in their current form, which is characterised by a tough outer shell similar to that of ordinary chicken eggs. To put this into perspective, the evolution of chickens in their current form occurred only 3,500 years ago. This is a striking contrast to the current state of affairs. Over the course of evolution, eggs have been around for millions of years before the chicken as we know it came into existence. This stark divergence in timelines highlights the entire evolutionary journey.

The Tale of Domestication

In Southeast Asia, around the year 1500 B.C., the cultivation of rice and millet brought about a change in the relationship between humans and a wild fowl that was a precursor to the chicken. This is known as the red jungle fowl. This wild bird, which resembled chickens in appearance but lived in jungle environments, gradually became domesticated over time. Its appearance was comparable to that of modern chickens. Over the course of millennia, human interaction and selective breeding had the effect of transforming this ancestor into the domestic chicken that we are familiar with today. It is remarkable that its remote ancestor, the species of jungle fowl known as Gallus Gallus, continues to flourish in the jungles of Southeast Asia, despite being subtly different from its domesticated counterpart.

This evolution reaffirms the significant time gap that exists between the two species: eggs have a lineage that dates back 300 million years, whereas chickens, in their current form, evolved only 3,500 years ago.

Unlocking the Mystery of the Chicken-Egg Paradox

The mystery of which came first, the chicken or its egg, is revealed in a sequence that sheds light on the stages of evolution. The modern chicken, which originated from the red jungle fowl, can trace its origins back to an ancestor that was similar to the proto-chicken. At a crucial point in their history, genetic mutations that occurred during reproduction resulted in the birth of the first true red jungle fowl from an egg. This event laid the groundwork for the first chicken to come into existence. Following that, the production of eggs by these evolved species led to the continuation of the chicken lineage through successive generations.

An unclear distinction is drawn by human classification, and the demarcation between what constitutes a “chicken” and its ancestral lineage brings this distinction into focus. The forces that drive evolution, which were previously investigated in the series on evolution, shed light on this constantly occurring transformation.

Gradual Evolution: An Intricate Journey

Within the context of this evolutionary narrative, the idea that there was a particular date that marked the birth of the first chicken is cast aside. On the contrary, it depicts a gradual progression, a continuum that is traversed through stages, generations, and incremental transformations. The idea of artificial selection, which is a topic that needs to be investigated further, sheds light on this gradual evolution.

Classifying Eggs: Vegetarian or Non-Vegetarian

Whether eggs are considered vegetarian or non-vegetarian, the classification of eggs reveals a complicated understanding. Eggs can be broken down into two primary categories: unfertilized haploid eggs, which are incapable of hatching, and fertilised diploid eggs, which are the result of mating and have the potential to hatch chicks. Embryogenesis, which is a process that occurs in some plant and animal species, allows for the development of embryos without the need for fertilisation. On the other hand, unfertilized eggs are not capable of hatching and are primarily consumed by chickens because they are not fertilised. This classification, which was upheld by the Supreme Court, considers these eggs to be vegetarian, devoid of life, and comparable to milk. This classification was based on the opinion of Mahatma Gandhi.

The Nutritional Bounty of Eggs

Eggs contain a wide variety of essential nutrients, such as protein, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which contribute to their nutritional value. It is because of this nutritional bounty that eggs are considered to be a very beneficial addition to one’s diet. Egg consumption is being advocated by the government as a means of combating malnutrition, which highlights the nutritional significance of eggs.

Human Intervention and Artificial Selection

Resonating in the evolution of cultivated plants and animals is the juxtaposition of natural and artificial selection, which manifests itself across a wide range of domains. Through the use of artificial selection, human intervention has significantly increased egg production among modern chickens. This is a remarkable achievement.

Evolution Beyond Chickens and Eggs

This evolutionary saga extends beyond the realms of chickens and eggs, and it encompasses human interventions in breeding. These interventions are most prominently seen in the process of maximising milk yield in cows or cultivating particular characteristics in plants. A further illustration of the profound impact that human intervention has had is provided by the evolution of cultivated plants such as broccoli, cauliflower, and bananas through the process of artificial selection.

The Dawn of Agriculture

The story continues all the way up to the beginning of agriculture, with wheat serving as a prime example of the transformative impact that domestication has had on human societies for centuries. This profound contemplation delves into the ways in which the cultivation of wheat reimagined the human experience, leading to agricultural practices that brought about significant changes in both the environment and the way people lived their careers.

The Evolutionary Journey Continues

In conclusion, the chicken-or-egg paradox can be recast as a continuum of evolution, which is a reflection of gradual stages, the influence of artificial selection, and the intertwining of human influence in the process of shaping the species that surround us. This story develops into a complex web that not only encompasses the origins of chickens and eggs but also discusses the broader implications of human intervention and evolution across a variety of different domains of existence.

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What happened to other Human Species? | Evolution of Homo Ancestors

by with No Comment Science

Introduction

Through the study of human evolution, one can discover a fascinating journey through time, which involves investigating the lineage of our ancestors. Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus, and Homo Neanderthals are three important species that have a strong connection to the anatomical background of humans. Can you tell me what happened to these species? Do any of them still take place today? These ancestors play a significant role in the history of modern humans, also known as Homo sapiens. Nevertheless, the most important question remains: has the process of evolution in humans come to a halt, or do we continue to evolve? In this video, which is the second installment of the Theory of Evolution series, we delve into these inquiries and attempt to unravel the mysterious story of human history.

 From the Beginning of Life to the End of the Dinosaur Era

In the video that came before this one, I had the opportunity to travel through the history of life on Earth and investigate the various forms of life that appeared before. The story continued all the way up until the time when dinosaurs became extinct. As we move forward, let us continue our journey and reveal the story of the evolution of humanity.

The Great Apes represent the closest relatives.

The Great Apes, which include Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Orangutans, and Bonobos, are our closest living relatives, and we will begin our exploration with them. These apes, along with humans, are classified as Hominids because they share a number of characteristics, including the ability to walk on two legs and the types of blood groups they have.

How Hominoids and Anthropoids Are Related to One Another

When we take a step back in the evolutionary chain, we observe the emergence of hominoids, which include gibbons that share an astonishing 96% DNA similarity with humans. Extending further, Anthropoids appear, which are composed of a variety of monkeys and have characteristics that seem to be similar to humans.

 Primates

The Primate category includes both Tarsiers and Lemurs, both of which have characteristics that are unique to them. The shy and nocturnal tarsiers are known for their extraordinary jumping abilities, while the Lemurs, which are native to Madagascar, carry the distinction of being the oldest living primates.

Understanding Evolution Through the Lens of a Tree with Many Branches

When evolution is compared to a tree, it can be seen as a tree that branches off into different categories. As we travel backward, we will find convergence points that reveal common ancestors, which will shed light on the relationship between modern-day animals and humans.

A Trip Through Hominins: Our Ancestral Lineage and Their Development

When we venture into the realm of Hominins, we come across a number of different species, one of which is Ardipithecus Ramidus, which was the extremely first species to exhibit bipedalism. Additional species, such as Australopithecus Afarensis, which is represented by the well-known fossil known as “Lucy,” displayed more advanced bipedal characteristics and the ability to use tools.

Between the time of Homo Habilis and Homo Erectus

The appearance of Homo Habilis, also referred to as “handyman,” demonstrated a significant advancement in the utilisation of tools and the scavenging of resources. The Homo erectus, also known as the “working man,” demonstrated significant advancements in the areas of hunting, toolmaking, and the utilisation of fire.

Homo sapiens: The rise of the Wise Man

The culmination of evolution is the species that we are, Homo sapiens, which demonstrates remarkable advancements in intelligence, creativity, and the development of society. The path that led to the development of modern Homo sapiens was paved by archaic Homo sapiens.

Extinct Cousins: Homo Neanderthals and Beyond

residing on Homo Neanderthals, Homo Denisovans, and Homo Floresiensis, which were species that coexisted with Homo Sapiens but fell victim to extinction in the long run. It is investigated how Homo Neanderthals overcame the obstacles that led to their eventual demise, as well as the genetic legacy that they left behind in modern humans.

Homo sapiens are still evolving in their species.

When considering the evolution of humans, contemporary evidence suggests that Homo sapiens continue to exhibit evolutionary characteristics. These characteristics are visible in the variation of skin colour and lactose tolerance across populations. The ongoing nature of human evolution is demonstrated by the evolutionary adaptations that have occurred in response to changes in the environment and in diet.

Secrets of the Ancestral Journey Beyond Humans

Taking a look back at the history of human evolution, it is essential to comprehend that our origins extend beyond primates. In order to gain a better understanding of the fascinating story of the evolution of life, it is necessary to investigate our relationship with vertebrates, mammals, and the last universal common ancestor, also known as LUCA.

A Journey of Epic Proportions: From Stardust to Life

Reflecting on the beginnings of life, beginning with the formation of stardust and progressing to the formation of our solar system and, ultimately, the beginning of the Earth, is a way to trace the story of the emergence of life. The journey from the smallest cell to complex organisms is illustrative of the great complexity that has been present throughout the evolution of life.

Conclusion

A captivating story is encapsulated in the process of human evolution, which is a complex tapestry that weaves through a wide variety of species and intricate characteristics. This narrative, which begins with the earliest forms of life and ends with Homo sapiens, offers a glimpse into an evolutionary journey that is rich in resiliency, adaptation, and continuity.

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India-Pakistan 1971 War | Why it happened?

by with No Comment history

As part of Operation Chengiz Khan, Pakistan launched aerial attacks on a number of Indian airfields on December 3, 1971. These airfields included those in Amritsar, Pathankot, Jodhpur, Ambala, Agra, and Srinagar. Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, quickly addressed the nation and declared the beginning of the war between India and Pakistan. This event marked the beginning of the India-Pakistan War, which went on until 1971. It was ultimately this conflict that resulted in the establishment of Bangladesh.

Contextualization of the Past

Allow me to take you back in time to the pre-colonial era before we delve into the complexities of the war. On the Indian subcontinent, there were a great number of independent kingdoms, each of which had its own language, traditions, and rulers. Since the 13th century, the Bengal region, which includes the areas that are now Bangladesh and West Bengal as well as the neighbouring regions, had been ruled by Muslim monarchs for a considerable amount of time.

Colonialism played a role.

In 1757, the East India Company established its dominance, which marked the beginning of British rule. This rule lasted until 1947, when the subcontinent was divided into India and Pakistan as a result of the traumatic partition. Religious tensions and geopolitical shifts were the driving forces behind the partition, which resulted in large-scale migrations and profound disruptions to all aspects of society and culture.

Origin of Pakistan as a nation

Pakistan was established in 1947, marking the beginning of the process of dividing the country along religious lines. This was the culmination of the demand for a separate state for Muslims. There were, however, differences that emerged within Pakistan, particularly between West Pakistan and East Pakistan (which is now known as Bangladesh).

Unrest in the political sphere and the imposition of Urdu

Political instability, economic disparities, and cultural differences all contributed to the widening of the rift between the two Pakistans after the formation of Pakistan. The Bengali Language Movement and protests started as a result of the government of West Pakistan’s decision to make Urdu the official language. This decision exacerbated the tensions that were already present.

Bangladeshi nationalism is on the rise.

Bengali nationalism and demands for autonomy were sparked as a result of the refusal to recognise Bengali as an official language and the subsequent suppression of protests. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the Awami League were particularly influential in this regard.

Conspiracy Case and Unrest in the Agartala Region

In the Agartala Conspiracy Case, Rahman and his associates were falsely accused of conspiring with India for East Pakistan’s independence. This further stoked public outrage and led to widespread demonstrations against the governance of West Pakistan.

The Elections of 1970 and the Political Consequences

The Awami League was able to win the vast majority of seats in East Pakistan during the 1970 elections, but it was unsuccessful in gaining any seats in West Pakistan. As a result of the subsequent annulment of election results by the authorities in West Pakistan, widespread unrest and demands for autonomy spread throughout the region.

Beginning of the Struggle for Independence

The declaration of independence by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman on March 7, 1971, and the subsequent crackdowns by the Pakistani army marked the beginning of Bangladesh’s quest for liberation. This occurred in the midst of mounting tension and protests.

escalation to the point of war

The culmination of Pakistan’s military crackdown and atrocities committed against Bengalis was Operation Searchlight, which resulted in widespread genocide among Bengalis. After seeing the influx of refugees and the atrocities that were taking place, India decided to get involved in the conflict in order to support Bangladesh’s fight for independence.

Conflict between India and Pakistan and the Liberation of Bangladesh

During the course of India’s military intervention, Pakistan’s request for a cease-fire was rejected, which ultimately resulted in India and Bangladesh achieving a decisive military victory. In 1971, on December 16th, the momentous surrender of Pakistani forces marked the beginning of the independence of Bangladesh.

Aftermath and the Development of

The recognition of Bangladesh as an independent nation was formally established through the Simla Agreement. In the years following the war, Bangladesh was confronted with its own set of difficulties, including a struggle for stability, military coups, and changes in the government.

Both Reflections and a Legacy

At the same time that it highlights the dangers of linguistic imposition, cultural differences, and the consequences of political marginalisation, the history of Bangladesh’s creation sheds light on these issues. The significance of inclusive governance and the complexities of cultural diversity within nations are both brought up for consideration as a result of this.

The birth of Bangladesh in 1971 was a pivotal moment in history, one that was marked by the perseverance of a nation, the sacrifices that were made, and the struggles that were endured. An examination of this narrative compels us to contemplate the complexities of nation-building, the importance of cultural harmony, and the enduring legacy of decisions made throughout history.

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How did the British Empire take over India?  Fall of Mughal Empire

by with No Comment history

A historical journey that begins with the foundation and early challenges faced by the British East India Company during its rise to power in India

In the year 1600, the British East India Company embarked on its journey with the intention of initially engaging in commerce in the Spice Islands of Southeast Asia. In order to counteract the fierce competition that they faced from the Dutch, they refocused their efforts on India. Their early attempts in Indonesia were unsuccessful due to the Dutch’s dominance, despite the fact that they were successful. With the intention of achieving better opportunities, the Company shifted its focus to India and established its first factory in Surat in the year 1608.

Finding Your Way Through Political Terrains

While the Company was operating under the influence of the vast and powerful Mughal Empire, it encountered difficulties in obtaining trading permissions. Their initial efforts to establish a foothold in Surat were unsuccessful because the Portuguese, who were in favour with the Mughal rulers, were able to achieve their goals. After this, strategic shifts were implemented, which resulted in the establishment of important factories in areas that were not directly under Mughal control. One such region was Machlipatnam, which is located in Andhra Pradesh.

Strategic Engagements and Expansion

Through diplomatic manoeuvres in the year 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was finally successful in securing trading rights from Emperor Jahangir, which was a significant step forward. The establishment of numerous factories in a variety of cities in India led to the flourishing of the Company’s trade in a variety of commodities, including cotton, indigo, silk, and other goods.

The Acquiring of Power and Authority by the Company

An unprecedented grant of rights from the English monarchy in the vicinity of the year 1670 provided the East India Company with political, economic, and military authority. This granted the company the ability to acquire territories, form alliances, and even wage wars, which was a monumental step for a corporate entity. Nevertheless, their unfortunate conflict with the Mughals in 1686 proved to be disastrous, resulting in defeat, fines, and the reinstatement of trading privileges.

The Mughal rule was fragmented, which led to the consolidation of control.

An Era of Internal Supplications

Following Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the Mughal Empire struggled with internal strife and power struggles, which paved the way for the rise of regional powers such as the Marathas. Both the external dangers posed by Persia and the instability of the financial system further weakened the central authority, which ultimately led to the establishment of local sovereign control.

The Company’s Operations and Strategies for Growth and Expansion

By strategically establishing Residents in various regions, enforcing Subsidiary Alliances on local rulers, and expanding its territorial control, the East India Company was able to capitalise on the weakened Mughal Empire. This was accomplished through the utilisation of alliances, political manipulations, and military might.

Transition to British Hegemony: The Intricacies of the Political Landscape

The Treaty of Allahabad, which was signed in 1765, was a momentous occasion that marked a turning point. It granted the Company the authority to govern Bengal and established its position as the de facto ruling entity. As a result of the Doctrine of Lapse, the British government was able to annex a number of territories, which ultimately led to the assumption of control by the British government in the year 1858.

The End of an Era: From the Rule of Companies to the British Raj and Their Legacy and the Impact Made After 1857

The First War of Independence, also known as the Revolt of 1857, ultimately led to the establishment of the British Raj and marked the end of the rule of the Company. By the year 1874, the British East India Company had ceased to exist, which marked the end of the company’s significant influence over the Indian subcontinent.

Alteration of the Political System in India

After the year 1857, the decline of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of the British Raj reshaped the socio-political landscape of India. This marked the end of a significant chapter in the history of the region.